Bertrand Russel
To avoid the various foolish opinions to which mankind is prone, no superhuman genius is required. A few simple rules will keep you, not from all error, but from silly error.
If the matter is one that can be settled by observation, make the observation yourself. Aristotle could have avoided the mistake of thinking that women have fewer teeth than men, by the simple device of asking Mrs. Aristotle to keep her mouth open while he counted. He did not do so because he thought he knew. Thinking that you know when in fact you don’t is a fatal mistake, to which we are all prone. I believe myself that hedgehogs eat black beetles, because I have been told that they do; but if I were writing a book on the habits of hedgehogs, I should not commit myself until I had seen one enjoying this unappetizing diet. Aristotle, however, was less cautious. Ancient and medieval authors knew all about unicorns and salamanders; not one of them thought it necessary to avoid dogmatic statements about them because he had never seen one of them.
Many matters, however, are less easily brought to the test of experience. If, like most of mankind, you have passionate convictions on many such matters, there are ways in which you can make yourself aware of your own bias. If an opinion contrary to your own makes you angry, that is a sign that you are subconsciously aware of having no good reason for thinking as you do. If someone maintains that two and two are five, or that Iceland is on the equator, you feel pity rather than anger, unless you know so little of arithmetic or geography that his opinion shakes your own contrary conviction. The most savage controversies are those about matters as to which there is no good evidence either way. Persecution is used in theology, not in arithmetic, because in arithmetic there is knowledge, but in theology there is only opinion. So whenever you find yourself getting angry about a difference of opinion, be on your guard; you will probably find, on examination, that your belief is going beyond what the evidence warrants.
A good way of riding yourself of certain kinds of dogmatism is to become aware of opinions held in social circles different from your own. When I young, I lived much outside my own country—in France, Germany, Italy, the United States. I found this very profitable in diminishing the intensity of insular prejudice. If you cannot travel, seek out people with whom you disagree, and read a newspaper belonging to a party that is not yours. If the people and the newspaper seem mad, perverse, and wicked, remind yourself that you seem so to them. In this opinion both parties may be right, but they cannot both be wrong. This reflection should generate a certain caution.
For those who have enough psychological imagination, it is a good plan to imagine an argument with a person having a different bias. This has one advantage, and only one, as compared with actual conversation with opponents; this one advantage is that the method is not subject to the same limitations of time and space. Mahatma Gandhi deplored railways and steamboats and machinery; he would have liked to undo the whole of the industrial revolution. You may never have an opportunity of actually meeting any one who holds this opinion, because in Western countries most people take the advantages of modern technique for granted. But if you want to make sure that you are right in agreeing with the prevailing opinion, you will find it a good plan to test the arguments that occur to you by considering what Gandhi might have said in refutation of them. I have sometimes been led actually to change my mind as a result of this kind of imaginary dialogue, and, short of this, I have frequently found myself growing less dogmatic and cocksure through realizing the possible reasonableness of a hypothetical opponent.
Be very wary of opinions that flatter your self-esteem. Both men and women, nine times out of ten, are firmly convinced of the superior excellence of their own sex. There is abundant evidence on both sides. If you are a man, you can point out that most poets and men of science are male; if you are a woman, you can retort that so are most criminals. The question is inherently insoluble, but self-esteem conceals this from most people. We are all, whatever part of the world we come from, persuaded that our own nation is superior to all others. Seeing that each nation has its characteristic merits and demerits, we adjust our standard of values so as to make out that the merits possessed by our nation are the really important ones, while its demerits are comparatively trivial. Here, again, the rational man will admit that the question is one to which there is no demonstrably right answer. It is more difficult to deal with the self-esteem of man as man, because we cannot argue out the matter with some non-human mind. The only way I know of dealing with this general human conceit is to remind ourselves that man is a brief episode in the life of a small planet in a little corner of the universe, and that for aught we know, other parts of the cosmos may contain beings as superior to ourselves as we are to jelly-fish.
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p1
prone, ORIGIN late Middle English : from Latin pronus ‘leaning forward’
silly, having or showing a lack of common sense or judgment
p2
settled, resolve
device, a plan, scheme, or trick with a particular aim
fatal, causing death
commit, pledge or bind (a person or an organization) to a certain course or policy
unappetizing, not inviting or attractive; unwholesome.
cautious, attentive to potential problems or dangers
ancient, belonging to the very distant past and no longer
*ancestor, a person, typically one more remote than a grandparent, from whom one is descended
dogmatic, inclined to lay down principles as incontrovertibly true
statement, a definite or clear expression of something in speech or writing
p3
passionate, showing or caused by strong feelings or a strong belief
conviction, a firmly held belief or opinion
aware, having knowledge or perception of a situation or fact
bias, prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfair
contrary, opposite in nature, direction, or meaning
subconscious, of or concerning the part of the mind of which one is not fully aware but which influences one’s actions and feelings
maintain, state something strongly to be the case
evidence, the available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid
warrant, a document issued by a legal or government official authorizing the police or some other body to make an arrest, search premises, or carry out some other action relating to the
persecution, subject (someone) to hostility and ill-treatment, esp. because of their race or political or religious beliefs
p4
profitable, beneficial; useful
diminish, make or become less
intensity, the quality of being intense
insular, ignorant of or uninterested in cultures, ideas, or peoples outside one’s own experience
prejudice, preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience
perverse, (of a person or their actions) showing a deliberate and obstinate desire to behave in a way that is unreasonable or unacceptable, often in spite of the consequences
wick, evil or morally wrong
p5
argument, an exchange of diverging or opposite views, typically a heated or angry one
*argue, give reasons or cite evidence in support of an idea, action, or theory, typically with the aim of persuading others to share one’
advantage, a condition or circumstance that puts one in a favorable or superior position
opponent, someone who competes against or fights another in a contest, game, or argument; a rival or adversary
cocksure, presumptuously or arrogantly confident.
hypothetical, of, based on, or serving as a hypothesis
p6
wary, feeling or showing caution about possible dangers or problems
flatter, lavish insincere praise and compliments upon (someone), esp. to further one’s own interests
self-esteem, confidence in one’s own worth or abilities; self-respect
firm, strongly felt and unlikely to change
abundant, existing or available in large quantities; plentiful
resort, the action of turning to and adopting a strategy or course of action
inherent, existing in something as a permanent, essential, or characteristic attribute
insoluble, impossible to solve
conceal, keep from sight; hide
persuade, cause (someone) to do something through reasoning or argument
characteristic, typical of a particular person, place, or thing
merit, the quality of being particularly good or worthy, esp. so as to deserve praise or reward
demerit, a feature or fact deserving censure
adjust, alter or move (something) slightly in order to achieve the desired fit, appearance, or result
trivial, of little value or importance
rational, based on or in accordance with reason or logic
demonstrably, clearly and undeniably
conceit, excessive pride in oneself
episode, an event or a group of events occurring as part of a larger sequence; an incident or period considered in isolation
aught, anything at all
cosmos, the universe seen as a well-ordered whole
theology 神学
arithmetic 数学
equator 赤道
unicorn 独角兽
salamander 火蜥蜴
hedgehog 刺猬
beetle 甲虫
jelly-fish 水母
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